Leadership+Project-+(b)+Rational

**Canisha M. Boldeau Marquette University School of Education Teacher as Leader EDPL 223 Online Spring 2009 ** **Rational** A review of research and literature in education reveals some important principles that characterize exemplary professional development. Among principles is the focus and attention that is placed on the success flexible teaching strategies by use of the standard curriculum in everyday classroom settings consisting of special needs and non-special needs students and diverse student populations. Five of the articles provide a variety of conditions that played an important role in the nurturing and development of effective flexible teaching strategies professional development strategies. The implementation of these teaching strategies should promote greater educational achievement and greater satisfaction for all students. Also included is a collection of peer-review articles on professional development planning. Because of the change in topic from “Reforming the Curriculum to Accommodate All Students”to“Flexible Teaching Strategies to Accommodate the Needs of All Students”, there is no need to summarize these articles since they lack case studies that focused on teaching strategies. However, it was important to emphasize that their powerful arguments promote the urgent need for assisting educators in re-designing an educational development plan that incorporates flexible teaching strategies placed within the regular curriculum (Rude et al. 2008), in order to teach effectively all students in the same classrooms that have a variety of needs, special and otherwise.

The following article summaries define, explain, and support the need for flexible teaching strategies that is integrated in the regular curriculum. They are based on the extensive research, observations, and evaluations and their goal is to enhance the learning process, success, through the integration of all students of diverse populations, including those of special needs, in the same classrooms. They promote flexibility by providing attractive teaching and learning strategies for teachers and students, support diversity in the presentation of lessons, and most importantly, provide training opportunities for teachers, assisting and support them in the presentation of lessons that will eliminate the need for the separation of special needs and non-special needs students.

McMullen, Rebecca C., Shippen, Margaret E., Dangel,, Harry L. , & (Jun 2007,). **Middle School Teachers' Expectations of Organizational Behaviors of Students with Learning Disabilities.** Journal of Instructional Psychology;, Vol. 34 Issue 2,, p75-82, 6p. **Summary: ** This study investigates teachers’ expectations of specific classroom organizational behaviors of students with learning disabilities in middle school. The surveys were categorized into the three occupational behavioral domains of pre-class planning, competence, and compliance. Findings identified the behaviors that are competence and compliance based as the most problematic, indicating that in order to perform at the required expectancy, students needed to exhibit both competence in assigned work and compliance in classroom procedures/protocol. This means that practicing middle school teachers and teachers of students with learning disabilities may be dependent on both the compliance and competence of students in order for these students to perform at acquired expectancy levels.  Implications for the practicing teachers include the need for students with learning disabilities to have a clear and thorough understanding of teacher expectancies and to be giving explicit instructions in classroom behavioral expectations in order to be successful.  Complications would arise when students are not motivated and do not have the prerequisites to help them meet teachers expectancies. Prerequisites, which include basic principles such as self-monitoring, scheduling, and deadlines, routines and reviewing, would affect learning. Likewise, students who are not motivated because of repeated failures or who are not exposed to skillful motivational techniques would also fail to meet the teachers’ expectations. Accepting that inclusive educators are being called upon to teach an influx of students with learning disabilities experienced through academic as well as organizational deficits, educators must ensure that preparation for inclusive general education, pre-class planning, and the classroom procedures of practicing teachers specifically dealing within the areas of competence, and compliance can prevent students’ failure to meet teachers’ expectations. <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">**Article 2:** Bock, Marjorie A (Sep/Oct 2007). ** A Social-Behavioral Learning Strategy Intervention for a Child With Asperger Syndrome. Remedial and Special Education **. Vol. 28, Iss. 5; p. 258-265 (8 pp.). <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; text-align: left;">**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Summary: ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; msospacerun: yesmsoSpacerun;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">This study examines the effect of social behavioral learning strategy interactions (SODA) on the social interaction skills of a 7th grade middle school male student diagnosed with Asperger syndrome with a nonverbal IQ within the range of DSM-IV, and a non-disabled male peer participant selected at random from the same class to serve as the control variable for the study.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Article 1: **

The research used was a multiple-baseline-across-setting design to analyze the Asperger student’s social behavior with and without SODA during English class, lunch, and activity periods, with maintenance occurring twice a month for two months. The study observed the participants behavior in cooperative learning activities with peers in class, at play and while eating lunch.

The study showed that the participants benefited significantly from SODA intervention. Performance by the Asperger student showed significant gains form baseline to SODA intervention during the times of cooperative learning, game playing and lunchtime interaction. The non-disabled participant also showed significant gains in all three areas and times of the study. Increased performance was observed on the first day and throughout the period of the study, and a high level of performance including improvement in long-term memory skills was observed over a two-month period after the completion of SODA training. <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; msospacerun: yesmsoSpacerun;">The results indicated that the Asperger students benefited for SODA intervention, maintaining a high level of performance throughout the period of SODA training and even when SODA training was discontinued. It showed that the SODA training may have lead to improved social behavior problem solving by the Asperger student, and suggest that SODA may teach Asperger students how to understand and relate to others in the main stream, and to use processes and strategies that facilitate communication and social behavior. <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; msospacerun: yesmsoSpacerun;"> <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 130%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">**Article 3:** Robert, Zabel, & Nigro, Frank (Lanham: Dec 2007). **Occupational Interests and Aptitudes of Juvenile Offenders: Influence of Special Education Experience and Gender** Journal of Correctional Education. Vol. 58, Iss. 4,, p. 337-355 (19 pp.). <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">This study examines the occupational performance, interest, and aptitudes of 201 youths in a juvenile detention facility in a metropolitan area, which is a short-term facility for youths awaiting court disposition. The youths are between 12.8 and 17.9 years old of mixed races, gender, and learning ability, with a majority of whites, males, and mainstream education. Group assignments included those who had been in special education and those who were not, and participants answered questions from Careerscope about occupational preferences and attitudes. Participants’ three areas of interest were identified. The results showed that the most selected areas of interest among the participants were Physical Performing, Protective Services, and Artistic, and the least selected areas of interest were retail selling and industrial. There were differences in choice among the participants. The SpEd group selected the occupational areas while the Non-SpEd group preferred working with Plants and Animals. Males chose Occupational Interest and Mechanics while females selected Physical Performing, Humanities, and Business. The Verbal and Numerical aptitude scores were at the low average and below average levels. A comparison of the two groups showed that the SpEd group scored significantly lower than the Non-SpEd on all but one of the areas measured except Spatial and Form Perception for females. <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 130%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">This study provides new and valuable information about occupational interest and aptitudes of juvenile offenders and the relationship between two, similarities and differences between juvenile offenders who in special education and those who were not, and between males and females juvenile offenders. The results indicate that many juvenile offenders continued deviant behavior into adulthood. Juvenile correctional system seem to provide inadequate intervention and prevention programs to meet the needs of juvenile offenders, and therefore is a need for transitional support for juvenile offenders. The study also indicates that juvenile offenders should be kept in school where they could learn skills and develop personal and social aptitudes that would enable them to find acceptable and satisfying employment. It also shows that there is a need for schools to develop adequate and attractive curriculums so that academically students would become more literate and competent to encourage postsecondary education and training; and also to introduce prevocational and vocational programs that would spark career interest, expose youths to job options, teach employable skills and provide entry-level training. <span style="font-size: 130%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Efforts should be placed on the performance and aptitudes of juvenile offenders paying special attention to those with special education needs. Juvenile offenders who have learning disabilities are considered high risk for school failure, limited educational employment, substandard opportunities and continued social maladjustment as adults. The results of an inventory of occupational interest and aptitudes among special education and non-special education groups indicated that verbal numerical aptitudes were at low and below average levels. For best results in improving occupational aptitudes in juvenile offenders with special educational needs, alternate education is recommended. This should commence in middle school and continue through adulthood with a strong combination of prevocational and vocational problems. Such programs should be coordinated and supported by transition specialist while teaching self-determination skills. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">** Article 4: ** <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Browder, Diane M, Trela, Katherine, & Jimenez, Bree (Austin: Winter 2007). **Training Teachers to Follow a Task Analysis to Engage Middle School Students With Moderate and Severe Developmental Disabilities in Grade-Appropriate Literature.** ProQuest Psychology Journal. Vol. 22, Iss. 4,, p. 206-219 (14 pp.). <span style="color: #ffff00; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #800000;">**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Summary: ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">This article suggests answers to four questions relating to the achievement goals of students with ADHD. Much emphasis has been placed on the achievement goal theory in understanding and improving student motivation. However, insufficient attention has been paid to evaluating the achievement goals of students with ADHD. In order to close the gap between students with ADHD and those without ADHD, the following questions were asked:
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Summary : **

<span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">The participants included 70 6th grade students from 10 to 13 years old from five middle schools. Participants were referred by parents in response to recruitment mailing requesting children with problems related to impulsivity, hyperactivity or inattention, and a wide variety of established measures were used to determine eligibility. Evaluation lasted for 6-8 hours and encompassed questionnaires, computer assessments and clinical interviews administered by trained and experienced researchers. Measures such as short breaks, a long lunch period, and limited time for each activity were taken to guard against fatigue. <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> Results indicated that mastery goal orientations were positively related to adaptive variables, such as academic efficiency, and negatively correlated with maladaptive variables, such as avoidance novelty, skepticism of the relevance of school, disruptive behavior, and work avoidance. Performance approaches were goal oriented, not strongly correlated with academic outcome variables, and its highest correlations were disruptive behavior and academic efficiency. Performance avoidance goal orientations were not linked to academic variables but to avoidance novelty.<span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> This study also indicates that there are several differences for students with ADHD, specifically concerning performance avoidance goals, novelty avoidance and work avoidance. In an effort to prevent and intervene in the failure of students with ADHD, we must understand the relationship between achievement goals and academic success of children with ADHD and the interaction relationship between perceived classroom goals and adaptive variables. <span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Article 5: ** <span style="font-size: 90%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;"> Barron, Kenneth E, Evans, Steven W., Baranik, Lisa E, Serpell, Zewelanji N, & Buvinger, Elizabeth (Summer 2006). <span style="font-size: 90%; color: #008000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffff00;">** ACHIEVEMENT GOALS OF STUDENTS WITH ADHD. **  <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;">**<span style="font-size: 90%; color: #ffff00; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #800000;">Summary: ** This study collates information and discusses the implications for teacher training based on a task analysis for teaching middle school students with moderate to severe disabilities using grade appropriate literature. <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">The participants were three certified special education teachers of students with significant learning disabilities that are based in a large urban school system. All teachers had experienced some exposure to literacy instruction through service training but their implementation of literacy instructions was limited. A language arts teacher from the school worked with the teachers providing necessary training and served as an ongoing resource for planning literacy lessons. The novels were chosen from the middle school’s supplementary support list for this grade level and were the same style with established text and symbols support, and strategies included the embedding of new and unfamiliar words, picture symbols and retelling to support students’ understanding, listening, comprehension, and communication skills. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">A multiple-probe-across-patient design was used to examine the effects of training to deliver literacy instruction. The phases of data collection included a per baseline to determine teachers’ level of literacy instruction prior to training, baseline observations conducted while implementing the lesson after a general training session, and observations after intervention in which teachers learned to self-monitor adherence to task analysis in individual sessions. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Results indicated that the teachers found the literacy training to be fair, practical, and enhancing to their teaching skills and recommended that it would be good for other teachers. Results also indicated that the training of teachers to follow a specific task analysis for presenting a lesson, all students could increase their book awareness, listening, comprehension, other literacy skills, and their participation in reading middle school literature. It also shows that the effective teaching of students with moderate to severe disabilities depends on the use of materials and activities that are appropriate to students’ chronological age, and raises the issue that students with moderate and severe development disabilities may be at an early literacy instructional level. **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Article 6: ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">De Valenzuela, J. S., Connery, M. Cathrene, & Musanti, Sandra I. (March/April 2000). ** The Theoretical Foundations of Professional Development in Special Education: Is Sociocultural Theory Enough? ** //Remedial & Special Education;//. //Vol. 21 Issue 2,//, p111, 10p. <span style="color: #ecec27; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #800000;">** Main Points: **
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">What are the achievement goals of students with ADHD?
 * 2) <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">How do those the achievement goals of students with ADHD differ from those of students without ADHD?
 * 3) <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">How are the achievement goals related to other academic outcome variables for students with ADHD?
 * 4) <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Can current instructional practices be altered to promote optional goals and motivation of students with ADHD?


 * <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">“The theoretical foundations of any educational practice must be understood by educators in order to develop fully the ability to evaluate their practice, confront the contradictions, and transform their classroom into democratic environments where they can genuinely address the actual needs of their students that result from an engagement with the real world.”


 * <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">“As social, political, and historical constructs, classrooms, curricula, and academic cultures play a strong role in the maintenance of preexisting social inequities (Bourdieu, 1997). Challenging the reproductive processes of these institutions implies the reconstruction of special education by revisiting the role that professional development needs to play in the growth and support of critically thinking and actively committed teachers. In this way, we will be able to transform the traditional roles schools have played in the institutionalization of social borders. The task in front of us is to learn how to erase these borders. As Freire wrote about current and future educators“, The solution is not to integrate them into the structure of oppression, but to transform that structure so that they can become beings for themselves” (as cited in Darder 1991).”

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">**<span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Article 7: ** Powers,, Stephen, Rayner,, Stephen, & Gunter,, Helen (Sep 2001). ** Leadership in Inclusive Education: A Professional Development Agenda for Special Education **. //British Journal of Special Education;//. //Vol. 28 Issue 3,//, p108, 5p. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> **<span style="font-size: 70%; color: #ecec27; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #800000;">Main Points: **


 * <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">“There is insufficient availability of professional development in leadership and management which focuses on practitioners in special education. My role as head of PRU (pupil referral unit) and the complementary services attached to it is a demanding one but also seemingly an unusual one. I feel quite isolated at times and the ability to share experiences with others in a similar position would be helpful.”

<span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">**<span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Article 8: ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> Billingsley,, Bonnie S. (2007**,). <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #066b06; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #d6d60a;">Recognizing and Supporting the Critical Roles of Teachers in Special Education Leadership .** //Exceptionality;//. //Vol. 15 Issue 3,//, p163-176, 14p. ** Main Points: **


 * <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">“Professional values are important guides or orient special educators to the value-laden work of identifying ethical issues, determining the negative effects of ethical conflicts at the personal and organizational levels, and delineating positive courses of action to resolve ethical dilemmas.”

<span style="font-size: 90%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Rude,, Harvey A., Whetstone, Patti J., & (Winter/Spring2008,). **<span style="font-size: 110%; color: #066b06; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #d6d60a;">Ethical Considerations for Special Educators in Rural America **. //Rural Special Education Quarterly;//. //Vol. 27 Issue 1/2,//, p10-18, 9p.
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">“The challenges of all educators, including those who work with learners with exceptionalities, is to integrate human rights, self-determination, and free choice in social, economic, and political participation into the daily lives of their students.”
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">Article 9: **
 * Main Points: **
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">“Serving the need of students who have disabilities requires multiple leaders across schools and district levels. As Fullan (2002) stated, “an organization cannot flourish at least, not for long-on the actions of the top leader alone”.

> <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;"> <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;">The following initiatives on which this project is designed are as follows:
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;">“Teachers who are given continuous opportunities to learn, experiment with new ideas, and implement new programs creatively can become leaders in their schools and communities. Such activities benefit teachers be allowing them to develop a broader perspective of the needs within and across schools, to encourage reflection about their own practices, and to provide variety in their work and recognition of their expertise.”
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;">to introduce flexible teaching strategies into the regular curriculum to meet all students needs eliminating the current watered down curriculum used for special needs and disability students.
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;">to promote ongoing professional development and support for all current and future educators
 * <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;">to increase awareness of current segregation of special needs and non-special needs students as well as educators, parents and community to promote collaboration and support for all involved.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 110%; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; background-color: #ffffff;">The above initiatives should be effective if the following guidelines are met: ·  to enhance the current curriculum without gaps which will bring together the needs and merging of all students ·  implementing flexible teaching strategies allowing completion of assignments, activities and special research with little or no help from the teachers for all students equally ·  creating a mandatory professional development plan including continuous education, peer public support, clear, realistic, and flexible goals ·  documentation to revisit for comparison of past achievement s and failures for possible evaluation and assessments for future improvements to increase success of all students

In summary current studies in the articles, suggest a strong need for the implementation of construction and development of professional development plans focusing on introducing effective flexible teaching strategies that address the needs of all students within the regular curriculum. The architectural structure of this project in combination with the initiatives, guidelines, research and professional feedback encourage the enhancement of the current educational system by increasing educational knowledge, lessening the current gaps in the education system allowing the possible success of all students equally while lessening the separation and cost involved with the current and often failing system.